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'''Hegemony''' (pronounced {{IPA|hɪ'gem.ə.ni}}) (greek:ηγεμονία) is the [[Dominance hierarchy|dominance]] of one group over other groups, with or without the [[argumentum ad baculum|threat of force]], to the extent that, for instance, the [[dominant]] party can dictate the terms of [[trade]] to its advantage; more broadly, [[culture|cultural]] perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. Hegemony controls the ways that ideas become "naturalized" in a process that informs notions of [[common sense]].
Throughout history, cultural and political [[power (sociology)|power]] in any arena has rarely achieved a perfect balance, but hegemony results in the [[empowerment]] of certain [[cultural]] [[belief]]s, [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], and practices to the submersion and partial exclusion of others. Hegemony affects the perspective of mainstream history, as [[history is written by the victors]] for a sympathetic readership. The official history of Christianity, marginalizing its defined "[[heresy|heresies]]", provides a richly-exampled arena of cultural hegemony.
Jás Elsner, in ''Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph'' (1998), has written:
:"Power is very rarely limited to the pure exercise of brute force.... The Roman state bolstered its [[authority]] and [[Legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]] with the trappings of ceremonial — cloaking the actualities of power beneath a display of wealth, the sanction of tradition, and the spectacle of insuperable resources.... Power is a far more complex and mysterious quality than any apparently simple manifestation of it would appear. It is as much a matter of impression, of theatre, of persuading those over whom authority is wielded to collude in their subjugation. Insofar as power is a matter of presentation, its cultural currency in antiquity (and still today) was the creation, manipulation, and display of [[image]]s. In the propagation of the imperial office, at any rate, art was power." (quoted at [http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth212/late_antiquity_imp_image.html])
==Theories of hegemony==
Theories of hegemony attempt to explain how dominant groups or individuals (known as '''hegemons''') can maintain their power -- the capacity of dominant [[Social class|class]]es to persuade subordinate ones to accept, adopt and internalize their values and norms.
[[Antonio Gramsci]] devised one of the best-known accounts of hegemony. His theory defined the [[State]] by a mixture of [[coercion]] and hegemony, between which he drew distinctions; according to Gramsci, hegemony consists of political power that flows from intellectual and moral [[leadership]], authority or [[consensus]], as distinguished from mere armed force.
Recently, [[critical theory|critical theorists]] [[Ernesto Laclau]] and [[Chantal Mouffe]] have re-defined the term "hegemony".
==Hegemonies in history==
The word "hegemony" originated in ancient [[Greece]], and derives from the word ''hegeisthai'' (meaning "to lead"). An early example of hegemony during ancient [[Greek history]] occurred when [[Sparta]] became the hegemon of the [[Peloponnesian League]] in the [[6th century BC]]. Later, in [[337 BC]], [[Philip II of Macedon]] became the personal Hegemon of the [[League of Corinth]], a position he passed on to his son [[Alexander the Great]].
In ancient [[China]] during the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou dynasty]] the Zhou kings appointed hegemons (known as "Ba"). This was due to the increasing chaos that resulted from the weakening of Zhou authority. The hegemons - initially from the powerful state of [[Jin (state)|Jin]] - were men with sufficient strength to impose Zhou rule. In return they got prestige and legitimacy they would not otherwise enjoy. The office of hegemon had vanished by the time the last Zhou king was deposed in [[256 BC|256 BCE]].
The term hegemon is also used to describe [[Japan]]'s three unifiers in the late [[sixteenth century|sixteenth]] and early [[seventeenth century|seventeenth centuries]]. [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] each had different titles (and held many different posts during their lifetimes), but each had in common that they exercised hegemony over all or much of Japan (and in Hideyoshi's case much of [[Korea]] at one point). For ease of reference they are collectively referred to as the three hegemons or the three unifiers.
To the extent that hegemony appears as a cultural phenomenon, cultural institutions maintain it. The [[Medici]] maintained their hegemony in Tuscany through control of [[Florence]]'s major guild, the ''Arte della Lana.'' Modern hegemonies also maintain themselves through cultural institutions, often with allegedly "voluntary" membership: the [[law abiding citizens]] or, arguably, the [[Teamsters]] in states without "[[right-to-work law|right to work]]" laws — one might adduce countless modern associations.
In more recent times, analysts have used the term '''hegemony''' in a more abstract sense to describe the "[[Proletariat|proletarian]] [[dictatorship]]s" of the 20th century, resulting in regional domination by local [[power (international)|powers]], or domination of the world by a global power. China's position of dominance in [[East Asia]] for most of its history offers an example of the regional hegemony.
The [[Cold War]] (1945 - 1990), with its main avenues of coercion — the [[Warsaw Pact]] led by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[NATO]] led by the [[United States]] — often appears as a battle for hegemony. The details of the parties' respective ideologies have no relevance to whether they are hegemons: both sides featured [[superpower]]s (supported by their [[client state|client]]s) battling to dominate the [[arms race]] and become the supreme world superpower. The details of the ideologies do come into play to the extent they determine how persuasive or efficient each hegemon is.
Since the end of the Cold War, analysts have used the term "hegemony" to describe the United States' role as the sole superpower (the [[hyperpower]]) in the modern world. However, some scholars of international relations (such as [[John Mearsheimer]]) argue that the United States does not have global hegemony, since it lacks the resources to impose dominance over the entire globe. Also, [[The People's Republic of China|China]] is at least partially a superpower itself, and is capable of competing with the U.S.
==Hegemony in Fiction==
The novel ''[[Valis]]'' by the science fiction writer [[Philip K. Dick]] treats the concept of hegemony as one aspect of what he calls the [[Black Iron Prison]], a totalised system of social control.
[[Orson Scott Card]] used the title 'Hegemon' to describe the office of world leader taken by the fictional character [[Peter Wiggin]], the brother of [[Ender Wiggin|Andrew (Ender) Wiggin]]. The story of Peter's rise to dominance is (partly) told in the [[science fiction]] novel '[[Ender's Game]]', and more fully in the 'Shadow' series. Peter uses his great intelligence and political savvy to manipulate public opinion. Initially through Locke, his alter ego, and Demosthenes, that of his sister [[Valentine Wiggin]].
[[Dan Simmons]]' [[Hyperion Cantos]] also features an interstellar society called 'The Hegemony of Man'.
==Geography of hegemonies==
[[Geopolitics]] influences hegemonies. Ancient hegemonies developed in fertile river valleys (an example of [[hydraulic despotism]]): [[Egypt]], China and the succession of states in [[Mesopotamia]]. In China during the [[Warring States Era]] the state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] artificially created waterways (such as the [[Chengkuo Canal]]) in order to give itself an advanatge over its neighbouring rival states. Hegemonic [[successor state]]s in Eurasia tended to cluster around the [[Middle East]] for a period, utilising either the sea (Greece) or the fringe lands ([[Iran|Persia]], [[Arabia]]). The focus of European hegemony moved west to [[Rome]], then northwards to the [[Franks]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Atlantic seaboard had its heyday ([[Spain]], [[France]], [[Britain]]) before the fringes of the European cultural area took over in the twentieth century (United States, Soviet Union).
Some regions exhibit continually fluctuating areas of regional hegemony: [[India]], for example, or the Balkans. Other regions show relative stability: northern China offers a case in point.
Long-lived hegemonies (China, ''[[Pax Sinica]]''; Rome, ''[[Pax Romana]]'') offer a contrast to shorter dominations: the [[Mongol Empire]] or [[Japan]]'s [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]].
==Resistance and Survival==
<!--this section needs further editing-->
Conrad Phillip Kottak, in ''Window on Humanity'' (2004),<!--is this the book that was being referred to?--> explains hegemony in terms of ideologies that offer explanations about why the existing order is in everyone's interest. Many things are promised, but are said to take time and patience in order for them to happen.
One good way to keep the people away from [[oppression]] would be by telling people that they will eventually gain power in the near future. In most cultures it is seen that the young respect their parents; therefore they let their elders decide what they want to do because of the great respect they have towards them. Another great example would be Solitude: separating soldiers and making them talk by [[torture]].
==See also==
===Hegemony===
*[[Antonio Gramsci]]'s concept of hegemony
*[[Cultural hegemony]]
*[[Monetary Hegemony]]
*[[Dominant ideology]]
*[[Hegemony or Survival]], a book by [[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Spartan hegemony]] ([[404 BC]] - [[371 BC]])
*[[Theban hegemony]] ([[371 BC]] - [[362 BC]])
* [[Pax Americana]]
* [[Pax Britannica]]
* [[Pax Mongolica]]
* [[Pax Romana]]
* [[Pax Sinica]]
* [[Pax Syriana]]
===Power===
* [[Major powers]]
* [[Power (international)]]
* [[Middle power]]
* [[Great power]]
* [[Superpower]]
* [[Hyperpower]]
===Other===
* [[The White Man's Burden (Poem)|The White Man's Burden]]
*[[Groupthink]]
==External links==
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Global/Hegemonism/ Hegemonism]
*[http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/contributions/gramsci.html Stuart Hainsworth, "Gramsci's hegemony theory and the ideological role of the mass media"]
*
Mike Dorsher, Ph.D., "Hegemony Online: The Quiet Convergence of Power, Culture and Computers" [http://www.uwec.edu/mdorsher/ica2001/hegemony_online.htm]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:Hegemony]]
[[Category:Marxism]]
[[category:ideology]]
[[Category:Terms]]
[[Category:Concepts]]
Throughout history, cultural and political [[power (sociology)|power]] in any arena has rarely achieved a perfect balance, but hegemony results in the [[empowerment]] of certain [[cultural]] [[belief]]s, [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], and practices to the submersion and partial exclusion of others. Hegemony affects the perspective of mainstream history, as [[history is written by the victors]] for a sympathetic readership. The official history of Christianity, marginalizing its defined "[[heresy|heresies]]", provides a richly-exampled arena of cultural hegemony.
Jás Elsner, in ''Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph'' (1998), has written:
:"Power is very rarely limited to the pure exercise of brute force.... The Roman state bolstered its [[authority]] and [[Legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]] with the trappings of ceremonial — cloaking the actualities of power beneath a display of wealth, the sanction of tradition, and the spectacle of insuperable resources.... Power is a far more complex and mysterious quality than any apparently simple manifestation of it would appear. It is as much a matter of impression, of theatre, of persuading those over whom authority is wielded to collude in their subjugation. Insofar as power is a matter of presentation, its cultural currency in antiquity (and still today) was the creation, manipulation, and display of [[image]]s. In the propagation of the imperial office, at any rate, art was power." (quoted at [http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth212/late_antiquity_imp_image.html])
==Theories of hegemony==
Theories of hegemony attempt to explain how dominant groups or individuals (known as '''hegemons''') can maintain their power -- the capacity of dominant [[Social class|class]]es to persuade subordinate ones to accept, adopt and internalize their values and norms.
[[Antonio Gramsci]] devised one of the best-known accounts of hegemony. His theory defined the [[State]] by a mixture of [[coercion]] and hegemony, between which he drew distinctions; according to Gramsci, hegemony consists of political power that flows from intellectual and moral [[leadership]], authority or [[consensus]], as distinguished from mere armed force.
Recently, [[critical theory|critical theorists]] [[Ernesto Laclau]] and [[Chantal Mouffe]] have re-defined the term "hegemony".
==Hegemonies in history==
The word "hegemony" originated in ancient [[Greece]], and derives from the word ''hegeisthai'' (meaning "to lead"). An early example of hegemony during ancient [[Greek history]] occurred when [[Sparta]] became the hegemon of the [[Peloponnesian League]] in the [[6th century BC]]. Later, in [[337 BC]], [[Philip II of Macedon]] became the personal Hegemon of the [[League of Corinth]], a position he passed on to his son [[Alexander the Great]].
In ancient [[China]] during the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou dynasty]] the Zhou kings appointed hegemons (known as "Ba"). This was due to the increasing chaos that resulted from the weakening of Zhou authority. The hegemons - initially from the powerful state of [[Jin (state)|Jin]] - were men with sufficient strength to impose Zhou rule. In return they got prestige and legitimacy they would not otherwise enjoy. The office of hegemon had vanished by the time the last Zhou king was deposed in [[256 BC|256 BCE]].
The term hegemon is also used to describe [[Japan]]'s three unifiers in the late [[sixteenth century|sixteenth]] and early [[seventeenth century|seventeenth centuries]]. [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] each had different titles (and held many different posts during their lifetimes), but each had in common that they exercised hegemony over all or much of Japan (and in Hideyoshi's case much of [[Korea]] at one point). For ease of reference they are collectively referred to as the three hegemons or the three unifiers.
To the extent that hegemony appears as a cultural phenomenon, cultural institutions maintain it. The [[Medici]] maintained their hegemony in Tuscany through control of [[Florence]]'s major guild, the ''Arte della Lana.'' Modern hegemonies also maintain themselves through cultural institutions, often with allegedly "voluntary" membership: the [[law abiding citizens]] or, arguably, the [[Teamsters]] in states without "[[right-to-work law|right to work]]" laws — one might adduce countless modern associations.
In more recent times, analysts have used the term '''hegemony''' in a more abstract sense to describe the "[[Proletariat|proletarian]] [[dictatorship]]s" of the 20th century, resulting in regional domination by local [[power (international)|powers]], or domination of the world by a global power. China's position of dominance in [[East Asia]] for most of its history offers an example of the regional hegemony.
The [[Cold War]] (1945 - 1990), with its main avenues of coercion — the [[Warsaw Pact]] led by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[NATO]] led by the [[United States]] — often appears as a battle for hegemony. The details of the parties' respective ideologies have no relevance to whether they are hegemons: both sides featured [[superpower]]s (supported by their [[client state|client]]s) battling to dominate the [[arms race]] and become the supreme world superpower. The details of the ideologies do come into play to the extent they determine how persuasive or efficient each hegemon is.
Since the end of the Cold War, analysts have used the term "hegemony" to describe the United States' role as the sole superpower (the [[hyperpower]]) in the modern world. However, some scholars of international relations (such as [[John Mearsheimer]]) argue that the United States does not have global hegemony, since it lacks the resources to impose dominance over the entire globe. Also, [[The People's Republic of China|China]] is at least partially a superpower itself, and is capable of competing with the U.S.
==Hegemony in Fiction==
The novel ''[[Valis]]'' by the science fiction writer [[Philip K. Dick]] treats the concept of hegemony as one aspect of what he calls the [[Black Iron Prison]], a totalised system of social control.
[[Orson Scott Card]] used the title 'Hegemon' to describe the office of world leader taken by the fictional character [[Peter Wiggin]], the brother of [[Ender Wiggin|Andrew (Ender) Wiggin]]. The story of Peter's rise to dominance is (partly) told in the [[science fiction]] novel '[[Ender's Game]]', and more fully in the 'Shadow' series. Peter uses his great intelligence and political savvy to manipulate public opinion. Initially through Locke, his alter ego, and Demosthenes, that of his sister [[Valentine Wiggin]].
[[Dan Simmons]]' [[Hyperion Cantos]] also features an interstellar society called 'The Hegemony of Man'.
==Geography of hegemonies==
[[Geopolitics]] influences hegemonies. Ancient hegemonies developed in fertile river valleys (an example of [[hydraulic despotism]]): [[Egypt]], China and the succession of states in [[Mesopotamia]]. In China during the [[Warring States Era]] the state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] artificially created waterways (such as the [[Chengkuo Canal]]) in order to give itself an advanatge over its neighbouring rival states. Hegemonic [[successor state]]s in Eurasia tended to cluster around the [[Middle East]] for a period, utilising either the sea (Greece) or the fringe lands ([[Iran|Persia]], [[Arabia]]). The focus of European hegemony moved west to [[Rome]], then northwards to the [[Franks]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Atlantic seaboard had its heyday ([[Spain]], [[France]], [[Britain]]) before the fringes of the European cultural area took over in the twentieth century (United States, Soviet Union).
Some regions exhibit continually fluctuating areas of regional hegemony: [[India]], for example, or the Balkans. Other regions show relative stability: northern China offers a case in point.
Long-lived hegemonies (China, ''[[Pax Sinica]]''; Rome, ''[[Pax Romana]]'') offer a contrast to shorter dominations: the [[Mongol Empire]] or [[Japan]]'s [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]].
==Resistance and Survival==
<!--this section needs further editing-->
Conrad Phillip Kottak, in ''Window on Humanity'' (2004),<!--is this the book that was being referred to?--> explains hegemony in terms of ideologies that offer explanations about why the existing order is in everyone's interest. Many things are promised, but are said to take time and patience in order for them to happen.
One good way to keep the people away from [[oppression]] would be by telling people that they will eventually gain power in the near future. In most cultures it is seen that the young respect their parents; therefore they let their elders decide what they want to do because of the great respect they have towards them. Another great example would be Solitude: separating soldiers and making them talk by [[torture]].
==See also==
===Hegemony===
*[[Antonio Gramsci]]'s concept of hegemony
*[[Cultural hegemony]]
*[[Monetary Hegemony]]
*[[Dominant ideology]]
*[[Hegemony or Survival]], a book by [[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Spartan hegemony]] ([[404 BC]] - [[371 BC]])
*[[Theban hegemony]] ([[371 BC]] - [[362 BC]])
* [[Pax Americana]]
* [[Pax Britannica]]
* [[Pax Mongolica]]
* [[Pax Romana]]
* [[Pax Sinica]]
* [[Pax Syriana]]
===Power===
* [[Major powers]]
* [[Power (international)]]
* [[Middle power]]
* [[Great power]]
* [[Superpower]]
* [[Hyperpower]]
===Other===
* [[The White Man's Burden (Poem)|The White Man's Burden]]
*[[Groupthink]]
==External links==
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Global/Hegemonism/ Hegemonism]
*[http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/contributions/gramsci.html Stuart Hainsworth, "Gramsci's hegemony theory and the ideological role of the mass media"]
*
Mike Dorsher, Ph.D., "Hegemony Online: The Quiet Convergence of Power, Culture and Computers" [http://www.uwec.edu/mdorsher/ica2001/hegemony_online.htm]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:Hegemony]]
[[Category:Marxism]]
[[category:ideology]]
[[Category:Terms]]
[[Category:Concepts]]
