Difference between revisions of "Hysteria"

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Hysteria refers both to a personality type and to a cluster of psychoneurotic symptom formations. Its manifestations—dramatic, physical, and affective—may be viewed as an attempt to express and symbolize a psychosexual conflict and, at the same time, to defend against acknowledging that conflict. Symptoms range from mental anxiety and phobia to the physical signs of conversion disorder.
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{{Top}}hystérie{{Bottom}}
  
The term derives from hustera, the Greek word for uterus, and was historically considered a female disorder. Writings on hysteria date to ancient Egypt and the Kahun papyrus (ca.1900 BCE), which described the disturbances caused by the "wandering uterus" that manifested as symptoms in various parts of the body. Greco-Roman doctors continued to associate hysteria with the uterus and to treat it as a female complaint. From the end of antiquity through the Middle Ages and the Inquisition, recourse to supernatural explanations made it possible to consider hysteria a form of demoniacal possession or witchcraft. The theatrical and contagious nature of hysterical symptoms may have been at the root of phenomena such as the "possessed" nuns of Loudun, the convulsionaries of Saint-Médard, and the Salem witches. Hysterics and their putative victims were often burned at the stake.
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==Definition==
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The nosographical [[category]] of [[hysteria]] dates back to ancient Greek [[medicine]], which conceived of it as a female disease caused by the womb wandering throughout the [[body]] (in Greek ''hysteron'' means womb).
  
Identification of hysteria as a distinct entity dates to 1870, when Jean Martin Charcot, a doctor at the largest hospice in France, the La Salpêtrière, segregated hysterics from other mental patients for purposes of research and investigation.
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The term acquired an important [[place]] in [[psychiatry]] in the nineteenth century, especially in the [[work]] of Jean-Martin Charcot, under whom [[Freud]] studied in 1885-6.
  
As a concept hysteria acquired several meanings:
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==Sigmund Freud==
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It was in the course of treating [[hysterical]] [[patient]]s in the 1890s that [[Freud]] developed the [[psychoanalytical]] method of [[treatment]] ([[free association]], etc.) and began to [[form]] the major [[concepts]] of [[psychoanalytic theory]].
  
  1. Conversion hysteria was a convulsive attack characterized by paralysis, muscular contractions and bodily contortions, visual disturbances, including hallucination, pain and anesthesia, and so on.
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[[Freud]]'s first properly [[psychoanalytic]] [[case]] [[history]] concerns the treatment of a hysterical woman known as "[[Dora]]."<ref>[[Freud|Freud, Sigmund]]. "[[Works of Sigmund Freud|Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria]]", 1905e. [1901]. [[SE]] VII, 3.</ref>
  2. As a psychoneurosis, studied by psychoanalysis, it was manifested by various symptoms and inversion of affect. Thus, Sigmund Freud's patient Dora experienced sexual excitation not as desire but as disgust, a hysterical displacement of a genital sexual conflict (1905e).
 
  3. The term "hysteric" also qualifies, pejoratively, a certain type of distaff personality in which prominent use is made of dramatization, emotional exuberance, colorful and exaggerated language, continuous erotization, and seductiveness.
 
  4. Finally, in everyday language, hysteria is the stuff of "emotional outburst" and "making a scene."
 
  
Broadly speaking, conversion hysteria led to the discovery of psychoanalysis as a method of understanding and treating psychopathological symptoms. Freud, who famously attended clinical demonstrations by Charcot, was struck by the indifference that hysterical patients displayed toward their suffering. Although for a time he suspected traumatic childhood seduction to be at the root of hysteria, he came to view such patients suffering "mainly from reminiscences" (1895d, p. 7)—that is, from a repressed traumatic event that remained mnemonically unintegrated, and could therefore only be expressed by conversion—through a corporeal memory, so to speak.
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==Symptomatology==
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The classic [[symptom]]atology of [[hysteria]] involves [[physical]] [[symptoms]] such as local paralyses, pains and anaesthesias, for which no [[organic]] [[cause]] can be found, and which are articulated around an "[[imaginary]] [[autonomy]]" which bears no relation to the [[real]] [[structure]] of the nervous [[system]]<ref>{{L}} 1951b. "[[Works of Jacques Lacan|Some Reflections on the Ego]]," ''Int. J. [[Psycho]]-[[Anal]].'', vol. 34, 1953. p. 13</ref>.
  
The death of his father in 1897 and subsequent self-analysis with Wilhelm Fliess led Freud to the discovery of his childhood passion for his mother and of his hostile feelings toward his father. Although the Oedipus complex did not appear as part of Freudian theory until later, he abandoned the theory of traumatic seduction; his key discovery was the notion of infantile sexuality, together with the importance of fantasy as a force that was both creative and disorganizing. At the same time he developed the concept of psychic defense and discovered in dreams and dream-work a link with hysteria.
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However, although [[Lacan]] does discuss the [[symptom]]atology of [[hysteria]], linking it to the [[imago]] of the [[fragmented body]],<ref>{{E}} p. 5</ref> he comes to define [[hysteria]] not as a set of [[symptom]]s but as a [[structure]].
  
In psychoanalytic theory, a hysterical crisis might be thought of as the embodiment of a dream. Its symptoms included the same mechanisms of condensation, displacement, symbolization, and disguise through censorship. Hysteria expressed a conflict that, incapable of being elaborated mentally, is translated in altogether enigmatic fashion into physical symptoms. The associative method of psychoanalysis could be used to identify the fantasies and symbolic pathways within it. Thus Freud described a hysterical woman who, with one hand, tore off her clothes, and with the other, held them against her body, simultaneously expressing the struggle between impulse and defense, enacting in effect a sexual scene in which she represented partners of both sexes (1908a). Hysterical neurosis and hysterical relationships involve identification, constant repression, and counter-cathexis that uses the Other as the theater of conflict.
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This means that a [[subject]] may well exhibit none of the typical [[bodily]] [[symptom]]s of [[hysteria]] and yet still be diagnosed as a [[hysteric]] by a [[Lacan]]ian [[analyst]].
  
Due to the absence of an organic lesion and the tendency for symptoms to disappear without a trace, as mysteriously as they came, hysterical conversion represented a provocative challenge to medicine. In general, hysterics have historically triggered irritation, accusations of lying and malingering, and rejection.
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==Neurosis==
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Like [[Freud]], [[Lacan]] regards [[hysteria]] as one of the two main forms of [[neurosis]], the other [[being]] [[obsessional neurosis]].
  
Hysteria has always defied medicine and the social order because sexuality is mixed up in it—in particular, female sexuality and the associated desire for sexual pleasure. Freud, in 1937, referred to the "repudiation of femininity" (p. 252) in both sexes as "bedrock," a stumbling block because of the mental association of the female with castration. Symptomatically, hysteria is an illness of repudiated femininity. More specifically, the anxiety that leads to this repudiation reflects the considerable libidinal energy required by the constant pressure of libido, a pressure that may be destructive of the ego.
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In the [[seminar]] of 1955-6 [[Lacan]] develops the [[idea]] that the [[structure]] of [[neurosis]] is that of a question, and that what differentiates [[hysteria]] from [[obsessional neurosis]] is the [[nature]] of this question.
  
JACQUELINE SCHAEFFER
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Whereas [[obsessional neurosis]] concerns the question of the [[subject]]'s [[existence]], [[hysteria]] concerns the question of the [[subject]]'s [[sexual position]].
  
See also: Activity/passivity; Actual neurosis/defense neurosis; Anna O., case of; Anxiety; Archeology, the metaphor of; Autoplastic; Autosuggestion; Breuer, Josef; Cäcilie M., case of; Charcot, Jean Martin; "Claims of Psychoanalysis to Scientific Interest"; Conflict; Defense mechanisms; "Dostoyevsky and Parricide"; Elisabeth von R., case of; Emmy von N., case of; Fantasy; Femininity; Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis; "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria" (Dora, Ida Bauer); Freud, the Secret Passion; Fright; Hypnoid states; Hysterical paralysis; Indications and contraindications for psychoanalysis in adults; Janet, Pierre; Katharina, case of; Lifting of amnesia; Lucy R., case of; Mnemic symbol; Mnemic trace, memory trace; Nervous Anxiety States and their Treatment; Neurosis; Phobias in children; Phobic neurosis; Proton-pseudos; Psychoanalytical nosography; Psychogenic blindness; Psychological types (analytical psychology); Quota of affect; Reminiscence; Repression; Seduction; Seduction scenes; Sexual trauma; Somatic compliance; Studies on Hysteria; Symbol; Symptom-formation.
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This question may be phrased "Am I a [[man]] or a [[woman]]?" or, more precisely, "What is a [[woman]]?"<ref>{{S3}} p.170-5</ref>
Bibliography
 
  
    * Freud, Sigmund. (1937). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE, 23: 209-253.
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This is [[true]] for both [[male]] and [[female]] [[hysterics]].<ref>{{S3}} p.178</ref>
    * Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies in hysteria. SE,2.
 
    * Jeanneau, Augustin. (1985). L'hystérie, unité et diversité. Revue française de psychanalyse, 49 (1), 258-283.
 
    * Schaeffer, Jacqueline. (1986). Le rubis a horreur du rouge. Relation et contre-investissement hystériques. Revue française de psychanalyse, 50 (3), 923-944.
 
    * ——. (1997). Le refus du feminine. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
 
  
Further Reading
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==Femininity==
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[[Lacan]] thus reaffirms the ancient view that there is an intimate connection between [[hysteria]] and [[femininity]].
  
    * Britton, Ronald. (1999). Getting in on the act: The hysterical solution. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 80, 1-14.
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Indeed, most [[hysterics]] are [[women]], just as most [[obsessional neurotics]] are [[men]].
    * Halberstadt-Freud, Hendrika. (1996). Studies on hysteria one hundred years on: a century of psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 77, 983-996.
 
    * Kohon, Gregory. (1984). Reflections on Dora: The case of hysteria. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 5, 73-84.
 
  
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==Structure==
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The [[structure]] of [[desire]], as [[desire]] of the [[Other]], is shown more clearly in [[hysteria]] than in any other [[clinical structure]]; the [[hysteric]] is precisely someone who appropriates [[another]]'s [[desire]] by [[identifying]] with [[them]].
  
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==Dora Case==
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For example, [[Dora]] [[identifies]] with Herr K, taking as her own the [[desire]] which she perceives him to have for Frau K.<ref>{{S4}} p. 138</ref>
  
==new==
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However, as the case of [[Dora]] also shows, the [[hysteric]] only sustains the [[desire]] of the [[Other]] on condition that she is not the [[object]] of that [[desire]].<ref>{{Ec}} p.222</ref>
  
The symptomatic return of repressed childhood sexual trauma. The two main forms of hysteria are 1) conversion hysteria, in which the symptoms are manifested on the body (eg. psychosomatic illness); and 2) anxiety hysteria, in which one feels excessive anxiety because of an external object (eg. phobias).
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She cannot bear to be taken as the [[object]] of [[desire]] because that would revive the wound of [[privation]].<ref>{{S17}} p. 84</ref>
  
Hysteria is a diagnostic label applied to a state of mind, one of unmanageable fear or emotional excesses. The fear is often centered on a body part, most often on an imagined problem with that body part (disease is a common complaint). People who are "hysterical" often lose self-control due to the overwhelming fear.
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==Treatment==
[edit]
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It is this privileged relation between the [[structure]] of [[desire]] and the [[structure]] of [[hysteria]] which explains why [[Lacan]] devotes so much attention to this [[clinic]]al [[structure]], and why he develops the idea in the 1970s that it is necessary, in [[psychoanalytic treatment]], to "[[hysteria|hystericize]]" the [[analysand]].
  
History
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==Discourse of the Hysteric==
 
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[[Hysteria]], as a [[clinic]]al [[structure]], must be distinguished from [[Lacan]]s [[concept]] of the [[discourse]] of the [[hysteric]], which designates a [[particular]] form of [[discourse|social bond]].
The term originates with the Greek medical term, hysterikos. This referred to a supposed medical condition, peculiar to women, caused by disturbances of the uterus, hystera in Greek. The term hysteria was coined by Hippocrates, who thought that the cause of hysteria was irregular movement of blood from the uterus to the brain.
 
 
 
The same general definition, or under the name female hysteria, came into widespread use in the middle and late 19th century to describe what is today generally considered to be sexual dissatisfaction.[1] Typical "treatment" was massage of the patient's genitalia by the physician and later vibrators or water sprays to cause orgasm.[1] By the early 1900s the practice, and usage of the term, had fallen from use, until it was again popularised when the writings of Sigmund Freud became known and influential in Britain and the USA in the 1920s. The Freudian psychoanalytic school of psychology uses its own, somewhat controversial, ways to treat hysteria.
 
 
 
The knowledge of hysterical processes was advanced by the work of Jean-Martin Charcot, a French neurologist. However, many now consider hysteria to be a 'legacy diagnosis' (i.e.: a catch-all junk diagnosis),[2] particularly due to its long list of possible manifestations: one Victorian physician catalogued 75 pages of possible symptoms of hysteria and called the list incomplete.[3]
 
 
 
A form of [[neurosis]] for which no physical diagnosis can be found and in which the symptoms presented are expressive of an unconscious conflict. 
 
In conversion hysteria, the symptoms usually take a somatic form (hysterical paralysis, irritation of the throat, coughs); in anxiety hysteria or phobia, the cause of the anxiety is a particular external object.  Hysteria has been explained in many different ways over the centuries; the most influential aetiology or causal explanation to have been put forward in the twentieth century is that supplied by [[Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].
 
 
 
Freud's initial thesis (1896) was the so-called [[seduction theory]] which held that hysteria and other neuroses originate in an experience of actual sexual abuse that has been repressed, but which can be recovered.  Freud initially used hypnosis to recover these memories, but abandoned it in favor of what Anna O. so felicitously termed the [[talking cure]].  Freud subsequently revised his original seduction theory in the course of a long correspondence with his collaborator Fliess and argued that hysteria stemmed from unconscious fantasies about incest that were bound up with [[oedipus complex]], though he never denied either the existence or the pathogenic effects of real abuse.
 
  
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==See Also==
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{{See}}
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* [[Analyst]]
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* [[Desire]]
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* [[Discourse]]
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* [[Neurosis]]
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* [[Obsessional neurosis]]
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* [[Other]]
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* [[Structure]]
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* [[Symptom]]
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* [[Treatment]]
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* [[Woman]]
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{{Also}}
  
 
== References ==
 
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Latest revision as of 23:50, 24 May 2019

French: hystérie

Definition

The nosographical category of hysteria dates back to ancient Greek medicine, which conceived of it as a female disease caused by the womb wandering throughout the body (in Greek hysteron means womb).

The term acquired an important place in psychiatry in the nineteenth century, especially in the work of Jean-Martin Charcot, under whom Freud studied in 1885-6.

Sigmund Freud

It was in the course of treating hysterical patients in the 1890s that Freud developed the psychoanalytical method of treatment (free association, etc.) and began to form the major concepts of psychoanalytic theory.

Freud's first properly psychoanalytic case history concerns the treatment of a hysterical woman known as "Dora."[1]

Symptomatology

The classic symptomatology of hysteria involves physical symptoms such as local paralyses, pains and anaesthesias, for which no organic cause can be found, and which are articulated around an "imaginary autonomy" which bears no relation to the real structure of the nervous system[2].

However, although Lacan does discuss the symptomatology of hysteria, linking it to the imago of the fragmented body,[3] he comes to define hysteria not as a set of symptoms but as a structure.

This means that a subject may well exhibit none of the typical bodily symptoms of hysteria and yet still be diagnosed as a hysteric by a Lacanian analyst.

Neurosis

Like Freud, Lacan regards hysteria as one of the two main forms of neurosis, the other being obsessional neurosis.

In the seminar of 1955-6 Lacan develops the idea that the structure of neurosis is that of a question, and that what differentiates hysteria from obsessional neurosis is the nature of this question.

Whereas obsessional neurosis concerns the question of the subject's existence, hysteria concerns the question of the subject's sexual position.

This question may be phrased "Am I a man or a woman?" or, more precisely, "What is a woman?"[4]

This is true for both male and female hysterics.[5]

Femininity

Lacan thus reaffirms the ancient view that there is an intimate connection between hysteria and femininity.

Indeed, most hysterics are women, just as most obsessional neurotics are men.

Structure

The structure of desire, as desire of the Other, is shown more clearly in hysteria than in any other clinical structure; the hysteric is precisely someone who appropriates another's desire by identifying with them.

Dora Case

For example, Dora identifies with Herr K, taking as her own the desire which she perceives him to have for Frau K.[6]

However, as the case of Dora also shows, the hysteric only sustains the desire of the Other on condition that she is not the object of that desire.[7]

She cannot bear to be taken as the object of desire because that would revive the wound of privation.[8]

Treatment

It is this privileged relation between the structure of desire and the structure of hysteria which explains why Lacan devotes so much attention to this clinical structure, and why he develops the idea in the 1970s that it is necessary, in psychoanalytic treatment, to "hystericize" the analysand.

Discourse of the Hysteric

Hysteria, as a clinical structure, must be distinguished from Lacans concept of the discourse of the hysteric, which designates a particular form of social bond.

See Also

References

  1. Freud, Sigmund. "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria", 1905e. [1901]. SE VII, 3.
  2. Lacan, Jacques. 1951b. "Some Reflections on the Ego," Int. J. Psycho-Anal., vol. 34, 1953. p. 13
  3. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977. p. 5
  4. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar. Book III. The Psychoses, 1955-56. Trans. Russell Grigg. London: Routledge, 1993. p.170-5
  5. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar. Book III. The Psychoses, 1955-56. Trans. Russell Grigg. London: Routledge, 1993. p.178
  6. Lacan, Jacques. Le Séminaire. Livre IV. La relation d'objet, 19566-57. Ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. Paris: Seuil, 1991. p. 138
  7. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits. Paris: Seuil, 1966. p.222
  8. Lacan, Jacques. Le Séminaire. Livre XVII. L'envers de la psychanalyse, 19669-70. Ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. Paris: Seuil, 1991. p. 84