Difference between revisions of "Metaphor"

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=====Definition=====
 
=====Definition=====
[[Metaphor]] is usually defined as a trope in which one thing is described by comparing it to another, but without directly asserting a comparison.
+
[[Metaphor]] is usually defined as a [[trope]] in which one [[thing]] is described by comparing it to [[another]], but without directly asserting a comparison.
  
 
=====Jacques Lacan=====
 
=====Jacques Lacan=====
However, [[Lacan]]'s use of the term owes little to this definition and much to the work of [[Roman Jakobson]], who, in a major article published in 1956, established an opposition between [[metaphor]] and [[metonymy]].
+
However, [[Lacan]]'s use of the term owes little to this definition and much to the [[work]] of [[Roman Jakobson]], who, in a major article published in 1956, established an opposition between [[metaphor]] and [[metonymy]].
  
On the basis of a distinction between two kinds of aphasia, [[Jakobson]] distinguished two fundamentally opposed axes of [[language]]: the [[metaphor]]ical axis which deals with the selection of [[linguistic]] terms and allows for their substitution, and the [[metonymy|metonymic]] axis which deals with the combination of [[linguistic]] items (both sequentially and simultaneously).
+
On the basis of a [[distinction]] between two kinds of [[aphasia]], [[Jakobson]] distinguished two fundamentally opposed axes of [[language]]: the [[metaphor]]ical axis which deals with the selection of [[linguistic]] [[terms]] and allows for their substitution, and the [[metonymy|metonymic]] axis which deals with the combination of [[linguistic]] items (both sequentially and simultaneously).
  
[[Metaphor]] thus corresponds to [[Saussure]]'s paradigmatic relations (which hold ''in absentia'') and [[metonymy]] to syntagmatic relationships (which hold ''in praesentia'').<ref>Jakobson, Roman. (1956) "Two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disturbances. ''Selected Writings'', vol. II, ''Word and Language'', The Hague: Mouton, 1971, pp. 239-59.</ref>
+
[[Metaphor]] thus corresponds to [[Saussure]]'s paradigmatic relations (which hold ''in absentia'') and [[metonymy]] to [[syntagmatic]] relationships (which hold ''in praesentia'').<ref>Jakobson, Roman. (1956) "Two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disturbances. ''Selected Writings'', vol. II, ''[[Word]] and Language'', The [[Hague]]: Mouton, 1971, pp. 239-59.</ref>
  
 
=====Influence=====
 
=====Influence=====
[[Lacan]], like many other French intellectuals of the time (such as [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Roland Barthes]]), was quick to take up [[Jakobson]]'s [[interpretation|reintepretation]] of [[metaphor]] and [[metonymy]].
+
[[Lacan]], like many [[other]] [[French]] intellectuals of the [[time]] (such as [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Roland Barthes]]), was quick to take up [[Jakobson]]'s [[interpretation|reintepretation]] of [[metaphor]] and [[metonymy]].
  
 
In the very same year that [[Jakobson]]'s seminal article was published, [[Lacan]] refers to it in his [[seminar]] and begins to incorporate the opposition into his [[linguistic]] rereading of [[Freud]].<ref>{{S3}} p. 218-20, 222-30</ref>
 
In the very same year that [[Jakobson]]'s seminal article was published, [[Lacan]] refers to it in his [[seminar]] and begins to incorporate the opposition into his [[linguistic]] rereading of [[Freud]].<ref>{{S3}} p. 218-20, 222-30</ref>
  
A year later he dedicates a whole paper to a more detailed analysis of the opposition.<ref>{{L}} ''[[Seminar V|Le Séminaire. Livre V. Les formations de l'inconscient, 1957-58]]'', unpublished.</ref>
+
A year later he dedicates a [[whole]] paper to a more detailed [[analysis]] of the opposition.<ref>{{L}} ''[[Seminar V|Le Séminaire. Livre V. Les formations de l'inconscient, 1957-58]]'', unpublished.</ref>
  
 
=====Substitution=====
 
=====Substitution=====
Following [[Jakobson]]'s [[identification]] of [[metaphor]] with the substitutive axis of [[language]], [[Lacan]] defines [[metaphor]] as the substitution of one [[signifier]] for another, and provides the first formula of [[metaphor]].<ref>{{E}} p.164</ref>
+
Following [[Jakobson]]'s [[identification]] of [[metaphor]] with the substitutive axis of [[language]], [[Lacan]] defines [[metaphor]] as the substitution of one [[signifier]] for another, and provides the first [[formula]] of [[metaphor]].<ref>{{E}} p.164</ref>
  
 
=====Algebraic Formula=====
 
=====Algebraic Formula=====
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This formula is to be read as follows.
 
This formula is to be read as follows.
  
On the lefthand side of the equation, outside the brackets, [[Lacan]] writes '''<i>f</i>''' '''S''', the signifying function, which is to say the effect of [[signification]].
+
On the lefthand side of the equation, [[outside]] the brackets, [[Lacan]] writes '''<i>f</i>''' '''S''', the signifying function, which is to say the effect of [[signification]].
  
Inside the brackets, he writes '''S'/S''', which means "the substitution of one signifier for another."
+
[[Inside]] the brackets, he writes '''S'/S''', which means "the substitution of one signifier for another."
  
 
On the righthand side of the equation there is '''S''', the [[signifier]], and '''<i>s</i>''', the [[signified]].
 
On the righthand side of the equation there is '''S''', the [[signifier]], and '''<i>s</i>''', the [[signified]].
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=====Signification=====
 
=====Signification=====
The idea behind this rather obscure formulation is that there is an inherent [[resistance]] to [[signification]] in [[language]] (a [[resistance]] which is [[symbolize]]d by the [[bar]] in the [[Saussure]]an [[sign|algorithm]]).
+
The [[idea]] behind this rather obscure formulation is that there is an inherent [[resistance]] to [[signification]] in [[language]] (a [[resistance]] which is [[symbolize]]d by the [[bar]] in the [[Saussure]]an [[sign|algorithm]]).
  
 
[[Meaning]] does not simply appear spontaneously, but is the product of a specific operation which crosses over the [[bar]].
 
[[Meaning]] does not simply appear spontaneously, but is the product of a specific operation which crosses over the [[bar]].
  
The formula is meant to illustrate [[Lacan]]'s thesis that this operation, the production of [[meaning]], which [[Lacan]] calls "[[signification]]", is only made possible by [[metaphor]].
+
The formula is meant to illustrate [[Lacan]]'s [[thesis]] that this operation, the production of [[meaning]], which [[Lacan]] calls "[[signification]]", is only made possible by [[metaphor]].
  
 
[[Metaphor]] is thus the passage of the [[signifier]] into the [[signified]], the creation of a new [[signified]].
 
[[Metaphor]] is thus the passage of the [[signifier]] into the [[signified]], the creation of a new [[signified]].
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[[Lacan]]'s own explanation of this second formula is as follows:
 
[[Lacan]]'s own explanation of this second formula is as follows:
  
<blockquote>The capital Ss are signifiers, x the unknown signification and s the signified induced by the metaphor, which consists in substitution in the signifying chain of S for S'.  The elision of S', represented here by the bar through it, is the condition of the success of the metaphor.<ref>{{E}} p.200</ref></blockquote>
+
<blockquote>The [[capital]] Ss are [[signifiers]], x the unknown signification and s the signified induced by the metaphor, which consists in substitution in the signifying [[chain]] of S for S'.  The elision of S', represented here by the bar through it, is the condition of the success of the metaphor.<ref>{{E}} p.200</ref></blockquote>
  
 
=====Contexts=====
 
=====Contexts=====
[[Lacan]] puts his concept of [[metaphor]] to use in a variety of contexts.
+
[[Lacan]] puts his [[concept]] of [[metaphor]] to use in a variety of contexts.
  
 
=====Oedipus Complex=====
 
=====Oedipus Complex=====
[[Lacan]] analyzes the [[Oedipus complex]] in terms of a [[metaphor]] because it invovles the crucial concept of substitution; in this case, the substitution of the [[Name-of-the-Father]] for the [[desire]] of the [[mother]].
+
[[Lacan]] analyzes the [[Oedipus complex]] in terms of a [[metaphor]] because it invovles the crucial concept of substitution; in this [[case]], the substitution of the [[Name-of-the-Father]] for the [[desire]] of the [[mother]].
  
 
This fundamental [[metaphor]], which founds the possibility of all ther [[metaphor]], is designated by [[Lacan]] as the [[paternal metaphor]].
 
This fundamental [[metaphor]], which founds the possibility of all ther [[metaphor]], is designated by [[Lacan]] as the [[paternal metaphor]].
  
 
=====Repression and Neurotic Symptoms=====
 
=====Repression and Neurotic Symptoms=====
[[Lacan]] argues that [[repression]] (secondary repression) has the [[structure]] of a [[metaphor]].
+
[[Lacan]] argues that [[repression]] ([[secondary repression]]) has the [[structure]] of a [[metaphor]].
  
The "metonymic object" (the [[signifier]] which is elided, S' in the previous formula) is repressed, but returns in the surplus meaning (+) produced in the [[metaphor]].
+
The "[[metonymic]] [[object]]" (the [[signifier]] which is elided, S' in the previous formula) is repressed, but returns in the [[surplus]] meaning (+) produced in the [[metaphor]].
  
The return of the [[repressed]] (the [[symptom]]) therefore also has the [[structure]] of a [[metaphor]]; indeed; [[Lacan]] asserts that "the symptom ''is'' a metaphor."<ref>{{E}} p.175</ref>
+
The [[return]] of the [[repressed]] (the [[symptom]]) therefore also has the [[structure]] of a [[metaphor]]; indeed; [[Lacan]] asserts that "the symptom ''is'' a metaphor."<ref>{{E}} p.175</ref>
  
 
=====Condensation=====
 
=====Condensation=====
[[Lacan]] also follows [[Jakobson]] in linking the [[metaphor]]-[[metonymy]] distinction to the fundamental mechanisms of the dream work described by [[Freud]].
+
[[Lacan]] also follows [[Jakobson]] in linking the [[metaphor]]-[[metonymy]] distinction to the fundamental mechanisms of the [[dream]] work described by [[Freud]].
  
However, he differs from [[Jakobson]] over the precise nature of this parallel.
+
However, he differs from [[Jakobson]] over the precise [[nature]] of this parallel.
  
Whereas for [[Jakobson]], [[metonymy]] is linked to both [[displacement]] and [[condensation]], [[metaphor]] to [[identification]] and [[symbolism]], [[Lacan]] links [[metaphor]] to [[condensation]] and [[metonymy]] to [[displacement]].
+
Whereas for [[Jakobson]], [[metonymy]] is linked to both [[displacement]] and [[condensation]], [[metaphor]] to [[identification]] and [[symbolism]], [[Lacan]] [[links]] [[metaphor]] to [[condensation]] and [[metonymy]] to [[displacement]].
  
 
[[Lacan]] then argues that just as [[displacement]] is logically prior to [[condensation]], so [[metonymy]] is the condition for [[metaphor]].
 
[[Lacan]] then argues that just as [[displacement]] is logically prior to [[condensation]], so [[metonymy]] is the condition for [[metaphor]].
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[[Lacan]] takes this as grounds for linking [[anal eroticism]] to [[metaphor]].
 
[[Lacan]] takes this as grounds for linking [[anal eroticism]] to [[metaphor]].
  
<blockquote>"The anal level is the locus of metaphor - one object for another, gives the faeces in place of the phallus."<ref>{{S11}} p. 104</ref></blockquote>
+
<blockquote>"The [[anal]] level is the locus of metaphor - one object for another, gives the faeces in [[place]] of the [[phallus]]."<ref>{{S11}} p. 104</ref></blockquote>
  
 
=====Identification=====
 
=====Identification=====
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[[Love]] is [[structure]]d like a [[metaphor]] since it involves the operation of substitution.
 
[[Love]] is [[structure]]d like a [[metaphor]] since it involves the operation of substitution.
  
<blockquote>"It is insofar as the function of the ''érastès'', of the lover, who is the subject of lack, comes in the place of, substitutes himself for, the function of ''érômènos'', the loved object, that the signification of love is produced."<ref>{{S8}} p. 53</ref></blockquote>
+
<blockquote>"It is insofar as the function of the ''érastès'', of the lover, who is the [[subject]] of [[lack]], comes in the place of, substitutes himself for, the function of ''érômènos'', the loved object, that the signification of love is produced."<ref>{{S8}} p. 53</ref></blockquote>
  
 
==See Also==
 
==See Also==

Revision as of 19:25, 20 May 2019

French: métaphore
Definition

Metaphor is usually defined as a trope in which one thing is described by comparing it to another, but without directly asserting a comparison.

Jacques Lacan

However, Lacan's use of the term owes little to this definition and much to the work of Roman Jakobson, who, in a major article published in 1956, established an opposition between metaphor and metonymy.

On the basis of a distinction between two kinds of aphasia, Jakobson distinguished two fundamentally opposed axes of language: the metaphorical axis which deals with the selection of linguistic terms and allows for their substitution, and the metonymic axis which deals with the combination of linguistic items (both sequentially and simultaneously).

Metaphor thus corresponds to Saussure's paradigmatic relations (which hold in absentia) and metonymy to syntagmatic relationships (which hold in praesentia).[1]

Influence

Lacan, like many other French intellectuals of the time (such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes), was quick to take up Jakobson's reintepretation of metaphor and metonymy.

In the very same year that Jakobson's seminal article was published, Lacan refers to it in his seminar and begins to incorporate the opposition into his linguistic rereading of Freud.[2]

A year later he dedicates a whole paper to a more detailed analysis of the opposition.[3]

Substitution

Following Jakobson's identification of metaphor with the substitutive axis of language, Lacan defines metaphor as the substitution of one signifier for another, and provides the first formula of metaphor.[4]

Algebraic Formula
Lacan-firstmetaphor.jpg

This formula is to be read as follows.

On the lefthand side of the equation, outside the brackets, Lacan writes f S, the signifying function, which is to say the effect of signification.

Inside the brackets, he writes S'/S, which means "the substitution of one signifier for another."

On the righthand side of the equation there is S, the signifier, and s, the signified.

Between these two symbols there is the symbol (+) which represents the crossing of the bar (-) of the Saussurean algorithm, and which represents "the emergence of signification."

The sign = is to be read: "is congruent with."

Thus the whole formula reads: the signifying function of the substitution of one signifier for another is congruent with the crossing of the bar.

Lacan-secondmetaphor.jpg
Signification

The idea behind this rather obscure formulation is that there is an inherent resistance to signification in language (a resistance which is symbolized by the bar in the Saussurean algorithm).

Meaning does not simply appear spontaneously, but is the product of a specific operation which crosses over the bar.

The formula is meant to illustrate Lacan's thesis that this operation, the production of meaning, which Lacan calls "signification", is only made possible by metaphor.

Metaphor is thus the passage of the signifier into the signified, the creation of a new signified.

Second Formula

Lacan presents another formula for metaphor in a paper written a few months later.[5]

Lacan's own explanation of this second formula is as follows:

The capital Ss are signifiers, x the unknown signification and s the signified induced by the metaphor, which consists in substitution in the signifying chain of S for S'. The elision of S', represented here by the bar through it, is the condition of the success of the metaphor.[6]

Contexts

Lacan puts his concept of metaphor to use in a variety of contexts.

Oedipus Complex

Lacan analyzes the Oedipus complex in terms of a metaphor because it invovles the crucial concept of substitution; in this case, the substitution of the Name-of-the-Father for the desire of the mother.

This fundamental metaphor, which founds the possibility of all ther metaphor, is designated by Lacan as the paternal metaphor.

Repression and Neurotic Symptoms

Lacan argues that repression (secondary repression) has the structure of a metaphor.

The "metonymic object" (the signifier which is elided, S' in the previous formula) is repressed, but returns in the surplus meaning (+) produced in the metaphor.

The return of the repressed (the symptom) therefore also has the structure of a metaphor; indeed; Lacan asserts that "the symptom is a metaphor."[7]

Condensation

Lacan also follows Jakobson in linking the metaphor-metonymy distinction to the fundamental mechanisms of the dream work described by Freud.

However, he differs from Jakobson over the precise nature of this parallel.

Whereas for Jakobson, metonymy is linked to both displacement and condensation, metaphor to identification and symbolism, Lacan links metaphor to condensation and metonymy to displacement.

Lacan then argues that just as displacement is logically prior to condensation, so metonymy is the condition for metaphor.

The Anal Drive

In his paper, "On transformations of instinct as exemplified in anal eroticism"', Freud shows how anal eroticism is closely connected with the possibility of substitution.

Lacan takes this as grounds for linking anal eroticism to metaphor.

"The anal level is the locus of metaphor - one object for another, gives the faeces in place of the phallus."[8]

Identification

Metaphor is also the structure of identification, since the latter consists in substituting oneself for another.[9]

Love

Love is structured like a metaphor since it involves the operation of substitution.

"It is insofar as the function of the érastès, of the lover, who is the subject of lack, comes in the place of, substitutes himself for, the function of érômènos, the loved object, that the signification of love is produced."[10]

See Also

References

  1. Jakobson, Roman. (1956) "Two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disturbances. Selected Writings, vol. II, Word and Language, The Hague: Mouton, 1971, pp. 239-59.
  2. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar. Book III. The Psychoses, 1955-56. Trans. Russell Grigg. London: Routledge, 1993. p. 218-20, 222-30
  3. Lacan, Jacques. Le Séminaire. Livre V. Les formations de l'inconscient, 1957-58, unpublished.
  4. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977. p.164
  5. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977. p. 200
  6. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977. p.200
  7. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Tavistock Publications, 1977. p.175
  8. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar. Book XI. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, 1964. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1977. p. 104
  9. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar. Book III. The Psychoses, 1955-56. Trans. Russell Grigg. London: Routledge, 1993. p. 218
  10. Lacan, Jacques. Le Séminaire. Livre VIII. Le transfert, 1960-61. Ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. Paris: Seuil, 1991. p. 53


Index