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{{Top}}scientific|science (science) ]]''|-|| [[German]]: ''[[Wissenschaft{{Bottom}}

=====Scientific Discourse=====Both [[Freud ]] and [[Lacan ]] use the term '"[[science' ]]" in the [[singular]], thus implying that there is a specific [[unified]], homogeneous kind of [[discourse ]] that can be called 'scientific'. This discourse begins, according to Lacan, in the seventeenth century (Ec, 857), with the inauguration of modern physics (Ec, 855).Freud regarded science (Ger. Wissenschaft - a term with markedly different connotations in German) as one of civilisation's highest achievements, and opposed it to the reactionary forces of "[[religion]]. Lacan's attitude to science is more ambiguous. On the one hand, he criticises modern science for ignoring the [[Symbolic|scientific]] dimension of human existence and thus encouraging modern man 'to forget his subjectivity' (E, 70). He also compares modern science to a 'fully [[Real]]ised paranoia', in the sense that its totalising constructions resemble the architecture of a delusion (Ec, 874)".

On the other hand, these criticisms are not levelled at science per se, but at the positivist model of science. Lacan implies that positivism is actually a deviation from 'true science', and his own model of science owes more to the rationalism of KoyrÈ, Bachelard and Canguilhem than to empiricism. In other words, for Lacan, what marks a discourse as scientific is a high degree of mathematical formalisation. This is what lies behind Lacan's attempts to formalise psychoanalytic theory in terms of various mathematical formulae (see [[mathematicsdiscourse]]begins, according to [[algebraLacan]]), in the seventeenth century <ref>{{Ec}} p. These formulae also encapsulate a further characteristic 857</ref>, with the inauguration of scientific discourse (perhaps the most fundamental one in Lacan's view), which is that it should be transmissible (Lacan, 1973a: 60)modern physics.<ref>{{Ec}} p. 855</ref>.

Lacan argues that =====Sigmund Freud==========Science and Religion=====[[Freud]] regarded [[science is characterised by a particular relationship to ]] as one of [[truthcivilization]]. On the one hand's highest achievements, and opposed it attempts (illegitimately, thinks Lacan) to monopolise truth as its exclusive property (Ec, 79); and, on the other hand (as Lacan later argues), science is in fact based on a foreclosure of the concept reactionary forces of truth as cause (Ec, 874)[[religion]].

=====Jacques Lacan=====[[ScienceLacan]] is also characterised by a particular relationship 's attitude to [[knowledgescience]] (savoir), in that science is based on the exclusion of any access to knowledge by recourse to intuition and thus forces all the search for knowledge to follow only the path of reason (Ec, 831). The modern subject is the 'subject of science' in the sense that this exclusively rational route to knowledge is now a common presupposition. In stating that psychoanalysis operates only the subject of science (Ec, 858) Lacan is arguing that psychoanalysis is not based on any appeal to an ineffable experience or flash of intuition, but on a process of reasoned dialogue, even when reason confronts its limit in madnessmore ambiguous.

Although On the distinction between the human sciences and the natural sciences had become quite well-established by the end of the nineteenth century (thanks to the work of Dilthey)one hand, it does not figure in Freud's work. Lacan, on he criticizes [[science|modern science]] for ignoring the other hand, pays great attention to this distinction. However, rather than talking [[symbolic]] [[dimension]] of the '[[human sciences' (a term which Lacan dislikes intensely - see Ec, 859) ]] [[existence]] and the 'natural sciences', Lacan prefers instead thus encouraging modern man "to talk of the 'conjectural sciences' (or sciences of subjectivity) and the 'exact sciences'. Whereas the exact sciences concern the field of phenomena in which there is no one who uses a signifier (S3, 186), the conjectural sciences are fundamentally different because they concern beings who inhabit the forget his [[Symbolicsubjectivity]] order. In 1965, however, Lacan problematises the distinction between conjectural and exact sciences:"<ref>{{E}} p. 70</ref>.

The opposition between He also compares [[science|modern science]] to a "fully realised [[paranoia]]," in the exact sciences and [[sense]] that its totalizing constructions resemble the conjectural sciences can no longer be sustained from the moment when conjecture is susceptible to an exact calculation (probability) and when exactitude is based only on architecture of a formalism which separates axioms and laws of grouping symbols[[delusion]]. (<ref>{{Ec, 863)}} p.874</ref>

Whereas in =====Positivist Model=====On the last century physics provided a paradigm of exactitude for the exact sciences which made the conjectural sciences seem sloppy by comparison, the arrival on the scene of structural linguistics redressed the imbalance by providing an equally exact paradigm for the conjectural sciences. When Freud borrowed terms from [[other sciences]] hand, it was always from the natural sciences (principally BIOLOGYthese criticisms are not levelled at [[science]] per se, medicine and thermodynamics) because these were but at the only sciences around in Freud's day that provided a [[science|positivist model ]] of rigorous investigation and thought. Lacan differs from Freud by importing concepts mainly from the 'sciences of subjectivity' (principally [[linguisticsscience]]), and by aligning psychoanalytic theory with these rather than with the natural sciences. Lacan argues that this paradigm shift is in fact implicit in Freud's own reformulations of the concepts that he borrowed from the natural sciences.

In other words, whenever Freud borrowed concepts from biology he reformulated those concepts so radically [[Lacan]] implies that he created [[science|positivism]] is actually a totally new paradigm which was quite alien to its biological origins. Thusdeviation from "[[science|true science]]", according and his own [[model]] of [[science]] owes more to Lacan, Freud anticipated the findings [[science|rationalism]] of modern structural linguists such as SaussureKoyré, Bachelard and his work can be better understood in the light of these linguistic conceptsCanguilhem than to [[science|empiricism]].

Is psychoanalysis a science? Freud was quite explicit in affirming the scientific status of psychoanalysis: 'While it was originally the name of a particular therapeutic method=====Formalization=====In other [[words]],' he wrote in 1924for [[Lacan]], 'it has now also become the name of what marks a [[discourse]] as [[science - the science of unconscious mental processes' (Freud, 1925a: SE XX, 70). However, he also insisted on the unique character of psychoanalysis that sets it apart from the other sciences; 'Every science |scientific]] is based on observations and experiences arrived at through the medium of our psychical apparatus. But since our science has as its subject that apparatus itself, the analogy ends here' (Freud, 1940a: SE XXIII, 159).The question a high degree of the status of psychoanalysis and its relationship with other disciplines is also one to which Lacan devotes much attention. In his pre-war writings, psycho- analysis is seen unreservedly in scientific terms (e.g. Lacan, 1936). However, after 1950 Lacan's attitude to the question becomes much more complex[[mathematical]] [[formalization]].

In 1953, he states that This is what lies behind [[Lacan]]'s attempts to [[formalize]] [[psychoanalytic theory]] in the opposition science versus [[artterms]], psychoanalysis can be located on the side of art, on condition that the term 'art' is understood in the sense in which it was used in the Middle Ages, when the 'liberal arts' included arithmetic, geometry, music and grammar (Lacan: 1953b: 224)various [[mathematical]] [[algebra|formulae]].

However, in the opposition These [[algebra|formulae]] also encapsulate a further characteristic of [[science versus religion, Lacan follows Freud in arguing that psychoanalysis has more in common with |scientific discourse than religious discourse: 'psychoanalysis is not a religion. It proceeds from the same status as [[Science]] itself (Sl1, 265)which is that it should be transmissible.<ref>{{TV}} p. 60</ref>.

If, as =====Truth=====[[Lacan ]] argues, a that [[science ]] is only constituted as such characterized by isolating and defining its a [[particular object of enquiry (see Lacan, 1946, where he argues that psychoanalysis has actually set psychology on a scientific footing by providing it with a proper object of enquiry - the imago - Ec, 188), then, when in 1965 he isolates the objet petit a as the object of psychoanalysis, he is in effect claiming a scientific status for psychoanalysis (Ec, 863)]] [[relationship]] to [[truth]].

HoweverOn the one hand, from this point on Lacan comes increasingly it attempts to question this view of psychoanalysis monopolize [[truth]] as a scienceits exclusive property <ref>{{Ec}} p. In 79</ref>; and, on the same year he states that psychoanalysis other hand, [[science]] is not in fact based on a science but a 'practice' (pratique) with a 'scientific vocation' (Ec, 863), though in [[foreclosure]] of the same year he also speaks [[concept]] of 'the psychoanalytic science' ([[truth]] as [[cause]].<ref>{{Ec, 876)}} p. 874</ref>. By 1977 he has become more categorical:

Psychoanalysis =====Knowledge=====[[Science]] is not also characterised by a particular relationship to [[knowledge]] (''[[knowledge|savoir]]''), in that [[science. It has no scientific status - it merely waits ]] is based on the [[exclusion]] of any access to [[knowledge]] by recourse to intuition and hopes thus forces all the [[search]] for it. Psychoanalysis is a delusion - a delusion which is expected [[knowledge]] to produce a sciencefollow only the path of [[reason]]. <ref>{{Ec}} p. . . It is a scientific delusion, but this doesn't mean that analytic practice will ever produce a science831</ref>. (Lacan, 1976-7; seminar of 11 January 1977; Ornicar?, 14: 4)

====="Subject of Science"=====The [[subject|modern subject]] is the "[[science|subject of science]]" in the sense that this exclusively [[rational]] route to [[knowledge]] is now a common presupposition.  In [[stating]] that [[psychoanalysis]] operates only the [[subject]] of [[science]],<ref>{{Ec}} p. 858</ref> [[Lacan]] is arguing that [[psychoanalysis]] is not based on any appeal to an ineffable [[experience]] or flash of intuition, but on a [[process]] of reasoned dialogue, even when reason confronts its [[limit]] in [[madness]]. =====Human And Natural Sciences=====Although the [[distinction]] between the [[science|human sciences]] and the [[science|natural sciences]] had become quite well-established by the end of the nineteenth century, it does not [[figure]] in [[Freud]]'s [[work]].  [[Lacan]], on the other hand, pays great attention to this distinction.  However, rather than talking of the "[[science|human sciences]]" and the "[[science|natural sciences]]", [[Lacan]] prefers instead to talk of the "[[science|conjectural sciences]]" and the "[[science|exact sciences]]."  =====Conjectural and Exact Sciences=====Whereas the [[science|exact sciences]] concern the field of phenomena in which there is no one who uses a [[signifier]],<ref>{{S3}} p. 186</ref> the [[science|conjectural sciences]] are fundamentally different because they concern beings who inhabit the [[symbolic]] [[order]].  In 1965, however, [[Lacan]] problematizes the distinction between [[science|conjectural]] and [[science|exact]] [[science]]s: <blockquote>The opposition between the [[science|exact sciences]] and the [[science|conjectural sciences]] can no longer be sustained from the [[moment]] when conjecture is susceptible to an exact calculation and when exactitude is based only on a formalism which separates axioms and [[law]]s of grouping [[symbol]]s.<ref>{{Ec}} p. 863</ref></blockquote> Whereas in the last century physics provided a paradigm of exactitude for the [[science|exact sciences]] which made the [[science|conjectural sciences]] seem sloppy by comparison, the arrival on the [[scene]] of [[structuralism|structural]] [[linguistics]] redressed the imbalance by providing an equally exact paradigm for the [[science|conjectural sciences]].  =====Natural Sciences=====When [[Freud]] borrowed terms from other [[science]]s, it was always from the [[science|natural sciences]] because these were the only [[science]]s around in [[Freud]]'s day that provided a model of rigorous investigation and [[thought]].  [[Lacan]] differs from [[Freud]] by importing [[concepts]] mainly from the "[[science]]s of subjectivity," and by aligning [[psychoanalytic theory]] with these rather than with the [[science|natural sciences]].  [[Lacan]] argues that this paradigm shift is in fact implicit in [[Freud]]'s own reformulations of the concepts that he borrowed from the [[science|natural sciences]]. =====Structural Linguistics=====In other words, whenever [[Freud]] borrowed concepts from [[biology]] he reformulated those concepts so radically that he created a totally new paradigm which was quite [[alien]] to its [[biological]] origins.  Thus, according to [[Lacan]], [[Freud]] anticipated the findings of modern [[structural]] [[linguists]] such as [[Saussure]], and his work can be better [[understood]] in the light of these [[linguistics|linguistic concepts]]. =====Is Psychoanalysis a Science?=====[[Freud]] was quite [[explicit]] in affirming the [[science|scientific status]] of [[psychoanalysis]]:  <blockquote>"While it was originally the [[name]] of a particular therapeutic method [...] it has now also become the name of a [[science]] - the [[science]] of [[unconscious]] [[mental]] [[processes]]."<ref>{{F}} ''[[Works of Sigmund Freud|An Autobiographical Study]]'', 1925a: [[SE]] XX, 70</ref></blockquote> However, he also insisted on the unique [[character]] of [[psychoanalysis]] that sets it apart from the other [[science]]s: <blockquote>"Every [[science]] is based on observations and experiences arrived at through the medium of our [[psychical]] [[apparatus]]. But since our [[science]] has as its subject that apparatus itself, the analogy ends here."<ref>{{F}} ''[[Works of Sigmund Freud|An Outline of Psycho-Analysis]]'', 1940a [1938]: [[SE]] XXIII, 159</ref></blockquote> =====Jacques Lacan=====The question of the status of [[psychoanalysis]] and its relationship with other disciplines is also one to which [[Lacan]] devotes much attention.  In his pre-war writings, [[psychoanalysis]] is seen unreservedly in scientific terms.<ref>{{L}} "[[Work of Jacques Lacan|Au-delà du 'principe de realité']]", 1936. {{E}} pp. 73-92</ref> However, after 1950 [[Lacan]]'s attitude to the question becomes much more [[complex]]. =====Art=====In 1953, he states that in the opposition [[science]] versus [[art]], [[psychoanalysis]] can be located on the side of [[art]], on condition that the term "[[art]]" is understood in the sense in which it was used in the Middle Ages, when the "[[liberal]] [[arts]]" included arithmetic, geometry, [[music]] and grammar.<ref>{{L}} "[[Works of Jacques Lacan|The Neurotic's Individual Myth]]," trans. Martha Evans, in L. Spurling (ed.), ''[[Sigmund Freud]]: Critical Assessments'', vol. II, ''The [[Theory]] and [[Practice]] of Psychoanalysis'', [[London]] and New York: Routledge, 1989, p. 224. [Originally published in ''[[Psychoanalytic]] Quaterly'', 48 (1979)].</ref> =====Religion=====However, in the opposition [[science]] versus [[religion]], [[Lacan]] follows [[Freud]] in arguing that [[psychoanalysis]] has more in common with [[science|scientific discourse]] than [[religion|religious discourse]]:  <blockquote>"Psychoanalysis is not a religion. It proceeds from the same status as [[science]] itself."<ref>{{S11}} p. 265</ref></blockquote> =====Scientific Status=====If, as [[Lacan]] argues, a [[science]] is only constituted as such by isolating and defining its particular object of enquiry,<ref>[[Lacan]] argues that [[psychoanalysis]] has actually set [[psychology]] on a scientific footing by providing it with a proper object of enquiry -- the [[imago]]; <ref>{{L}} "[[Work of Jacques Lacan|Propos sur la causalité psychique]]", in {{E}} [1946]. pp. 151-93</ref>; {{Ec}} p. 188</ref> then, when in 1965 he isolates the ''[[objet petit a]]'' as the [[object]] of [[psychoanalysis]], he is in effect claiming a [[science|scientific status]] for [[psychoanalysis]].<ref>{{Ec}} p. 863</ref>. However, from this point on [[Lacan]] comes increasingly to question this view of [[psychoanalysis]] as a [[science]].  In the same year he states that [[psychoanalysis]] is not a [[science]] but a "practice" (''pratique'') with a "[[science|scientific vocation]]",<ref>{{Ec}} p. 863</ref> though in the same year he also speaks of 'the [[science|psychoanalytic science]]."<ref>{{Ec}} p. 876</ref>.  By 1977 he has become more categorical: <blockquote>Psychoanalysis is not a [[science]]. It has no scientific status - it merely waits and hopes for it. Psychoanalysis is a delusion - a delusion which is expected to produce a [[science]]. . . . It is a scientific delusion, but this doesn't mean that [[analytic]] practice will ever produce a [[science]]. <ref>{{L}} ''[[Seminar XXIV| Le Séminaire. Livre XXIV. L'insu que sait de l'une bévue s'aile à mourre, 1976-77'', published in ''Ornicar?'', nos 12-18, 1977-9; [[Seminar]] of 11 January 1977; ''[[Ornicar?]]'', 14: 4</ref></blockquote> =====Linguistics and Mathematics=====However, even when [[Lacan ]] makes such statements, he never abandons the [[project ]] of formalising [[formalizing]] [[psychoanalytic theory ]] in [[linguistic ]] and [[mathematical ]] terms.  Indeed, the tension between the [[science|scientific formalism ]] of the MATHEME [[matheme]] and the semantic profusion of ''[[lalangue ]]'' constitutes one of the most interesting features of [[Lacan]]'s later work. ==See Also=={{See}}* [[Algebra]]* [[Art]]* [[Biology]]||* [[Discourse]]* [[Knowledge]]* [[Linguistic]]||* [[Mathematics]]* [[Matheme]]* [[Nature]]||* [[Psychoanalysis]]* [[Psychology]]* [[Religion]]||* [[Subject]]* [[Treatment]]* [[Truth]]{{Also}} ==References==<div style="font-size:11px" class="references-small"><references/></div> [[Category:Science]][[Category:Psychoanalysis]][[Category:Jacques Lacan]][[Category:Dictionary]][[Category:Concepts]][[Category:Terms]][[Category:Edit]] __NOTOC__