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[[Freud]]'s [[psychoanalytic ]] [[system ]] evolved over nearly 60 years of professional [[work]]. He himself was constantly revising aspects of his [[theory ]] to better reflect what he was learning on a continual basis. There are a [[number ]] of [[concepts ]] that are essential for [[understanding ]] [[psychoanalytic theory]].

Freud's theory of the [[unconscious ]] is the foundation upon which much of his psychoanalytic theory is built. Freud hypothesized that the [[mind ]] is [[divided ]] into [[three ]] main parts: the unconscious, the [[conscious]], and the [[preconscious]]. The unconscious is by far the larger and most important part of the mind according to Freud. It includes all the things that are not easily available to [[awareness]]. Freud suggested that the [[unconscious mind ]] [[acts ]] like a repository for those [[thoughts]], [[memories]], experiences, and [[feelings ]] that can't or won't easily move into the conscious mind. Items may come to this repository because of [[trauma ]] or for any number of reasons for which a person might protect him or herself from unpleasant [[emotion]]. The unconscious also includes [[drives ]] or [[instincts ]] that [[cause ]] [[humans ]] to behave the way they do.

The conscious mind also plays a key [[role]]. Freud believed that everything we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. At any given [[time]], a person is only aware of a very small part of what makes up his or her [[personality]]; the rest is buried in the unconscious and is inaccessible. Though small in comparison to the unconscious, the conscious mind is still essential and important for adaptive functioning.

The final part is the preconscious or [[subconscious]]. This is the part of mind that can be accessed if prompted, but is not in our [[active ]] conscious. The preconscious [[exists ]] just below the surface, and is buried until needed. Common information such as one's telephone number, [[childhood ]] memories, or one's home address is stored in the preconscious.

[[Conflict ]] between conscious and unconscious impulses are said to give rise to [[anxiety]], which Freud believed to be common to all [[people]]. The most common way to counteract anxiety, according to Freud, was to employ the use of what he called [[defense ]] mechanisms. To tap the unconscious, Freud used a variety of techniques, including [[hypnosis]], free [[association]], and [[dream ]] [[interpretation]]. Carl G. [[Jung ]] expanded on the [[Freudian ]] [[concept]], adding the [[idea ]] of an inherited unconscious, known as the [[collective unconscious]].

Also residing in the unconscious are the instincts or drives. The instincts, for Freud, are the principal motivating forces that "energize" the mind in all of its functions. There are, he held, an indefinite number of such instincts, but these can be reduced to a small number of basic ones, which he grouped into two broad generic [[categories]]: [[Eros ]] (the [[life ]] [[instinct]]), which covers all [[self]]-preserving and [[erotic ]] instincts, and [[Thanatos ]] (the [[death ]] instinct), which covers all the instincts towards [[aggression]], self-[[destruction]], and [[cruelty]].

Although Freud didn't invent the idea of the unconscious mind, he certainly was the one who made it popular. Given the work by [[other ]] theorists in the nineteenth century, it is not surprising that Freud's concept of mind, especially the unconscious, grew to prominence. He took the principles that dominated the [[thought ]] of those [[working ]] with the [[physiology ]] of the [[body ]] and applied [[them ]] systematically to the sphere of the mind. Thus Freud's conception of the unconscious explained behavioral patterns set in motion by unconscious instincts and drives, which were previously unexplained.

The unconscious [[material ]] of a person's [[life drives ]] [[behavior ]] in both positive and [[negative ]] ways. But when unconscious [[experience ]] or emotion creates [[maladaptive ]] [[living]], the unconscious material cannot simply be brought into [[consciousness ]] at will. It must be coaxed out using the proper techniques. Freud created the techniques of [[psychoanalysis ]] as the means of bringing material from the unconscious into the conscious mind, so that it could be investigated and possibly changed. The analogy of an iceberg has been often used to [[help ]] visualize the role of the conscious as compared to the unconscious mind. The bulk of the iceberg, the unconscious mind, lies below the surface, exerting a [[dynamic ]] and determining influence over the direction of the mass. The [[visible ]] part, the conscious mind, is small in comparison and is [[subject ]] to the weight of the portion below the surface.

Regarding instincts and drives, Freud is often referenced as having said that all [[human ]] actions spring from motivations which are [[sexual ]] in origin. This assertion is not completely accurate. Freud did [[state ]] that sexual drives play an important and central role in human life, actions, and behavior. This was the subject of much controversy for the sexually [[repressed ]] time period in which he lived. He went also took it further by saying that sexual drives [[exist ]] and can be discerned in [[children ]] from [[birth]], and that sexual [[energy ]] ([[libido]]) is the single most important motivating force in [[adult ]] life. However, even here a crucial qualification has to be added. Freud effectively redefined the term [[sexuality ]] to include any [[form ]] of [[pleasure ]] that is or can be derived from the body. Thus his theory of the instincts or drives is essentially that the human [[being ]] is energized or driven from birth by the [[desire ]] to acquire and enhance [[bodily ]] pleasure.

One of Freud's [[patients ]] once described to him a [[repeating ]] dream that involved her chasing a man she worked with up several flights of stairs. The [[woman ]] claimed that even though she ran faster and faster, she never caught the man nor reached the top of the stairway, which caused her immense [[frustration]]. Freud [[interpreted ]] such [[dreams ]] as the unconscious mind representing a desire or [[drive ]] for sexual contact with the person she was chasing. Freud would say that the dream expressed itself through the unconscious because it might be too threatening, psychologically [[speaking]], for the [[patient ]] to admit this to herself. It might threaten her self-concept or [[sense ]] of [[morality ]] to admit to such lustful urges. So instead, her unconscious mind turned the urges into a non-threatening symbol—running up flights of stairs.

Freud further divided the conscious and unconscious mind into three [[structures ]] or systems that performed different roles. These systems he named the id, ego, and [[superego]]. Freud viewed human beings as energy systems, where only one system can be in [[control ]] at any given time, while the other two systems give themselves over to the [[psychic ]] energy of the one in control.

The id is the original system of personality and the dominant one at birth. In [[German]], the [[word ]] was literally translated as the "it." The id is primarily the source of [[psychic energy ]] and the core of all instincts. It is [[infantile ]] in the way it manifests and functions on the unconscious level. It [[lacks ]] organization and is demanding, insistent, and impulsive. The id cannot tolerate tension and works to [[discharge ]] tension as quickly as possible and [[return ]] to a balanced state. Therefore the id operates according to the [[demands ]] of what Freud called the pleasure [[principle]]. That is, it wants to [[satisfy ]] its desires so as to relieve the tension.

The ego, in contrast, works not by the [[pleasure principle ]] but rather by the [[reality ]] principle. In other [[words]], there is a [[real ]] [[world ]] out there that must be reckoned with. The ego (literally "I") is the personality [[structure ]] that develops to deal with the real world and solve the problems of life. It acts as the "executive" branch of the personality that governs, controls, and regulates matters of life. The ego functions as part of the conscious mind.

The superego is the judicial branch of the personality. It imposes a [[moral ]] [[code]], concerning itself with whether a [[particular ]] [[action ]] is [[good ]] or bad; [[right ]] or wrong. It represents the [[ideal]], rather than a [[reflection ]] of reality, and strives for perfection instead of pleasure. The superego represents the ideals of [[society ]] as they are passed from one generation to [[another]]. The superego can be represented by both the unconscious and conscious mind depending on the particular function it is serving.

The id never matures, remaining infantile in its impulses and urges while seeking pleasure and avoiding tension at all costs. If it had its way it would forever seek indulgence, the same way a young [[child ]] seeks only to get his or her selfish [[needs ]] met. If [[left ]] to its own appetite, the id would be unable to function in the world.

To temper the id's urges, the ego steps in to acknowledge an [[objective ]] reality that must be dealt with. Other people, for [[instance]], also have needs that must be considered. While it is the job of the ego to help satisfy the id's inclinations, it also must mediate how serving those needs will [[affect ]] one's reality. Over time, the ego's efforts create a "dialogue" of sorts with the real world that transforms into actual skills, competencies, and memories. These resources are then internalized into what Freud referred to as the "self," an emerging sense of personhood, instead of a bundle of urges and needs.

The superego works to inhibit the id's impulses while persuading the ego to [[substitute ]] [[moralistic ]] goals for realistic ones and to strive for perfection. The superego works off the basis of [[psychological ]] rewards and punishments. If a person responds in the "right" manner, the reward might be a [[feeling ]] of pride or self-[[love]]. If the [[individual ]] deems their action as immoral or "wrong," the resulting [[punishment ]] might be [[guilt ]] or feelings of [[inferiority]].

Freud conceived the mind as being in constant conflict with itself. He [[understood ]] this conflict as the primary cause of human anxiety and unhappiness. His classic example is the patient [[Anna O]]., who displayed a rash of psychological and [[physiological ]] [[symptoms]]: assorted paralyses, [[hysterical ]] squints, coughs, and [[speech ]] disorders, among [[others]]. Under hypnosis, Josef [[Breuer]], a fellow physician and close friend of Freud, traced many of these symptoms to memories of a period when she cared for her dying [[father]]. One [[symptom]], a nervous cough, they related to a particular [[event ]] at her father's bedside. Upon hearing dance [[music ]] that was drifting from a [[neighbor]]'s house, she felt an urge to be there, gone from her father's bedside. Immediately, she was struck with guilt and self-reproach for having the desire to leave him. She covered this [[internal ]] conflict with a nervous cough, and from that day on, coughed reflexively at the sound of rhythmic music. Freud's investigations into internal conflicts such as this led him to eventually [[construct ]] the divisions of the mind now known as id, ego, and superego.

Because the ego is the great equalizer between the id and superego, conflict is inevitable. This conflict, according to Freud, brings anxiety and serves as a [[signal ]] to the ego that its survival may be in jeopardy. Freud further divided anxiety into three kinds: realistic anxiety ([[fear ]] of real situations), moral anxiety (fear that stems from the internalized ideal world of the superego), and [[neurotic ]] anxiety (fear that results from impulses originating in the id). It is the unconscious neurotic anxiety that most intrigued Freud and formed the basis for his research. Psychoanalytic [[therapy ]] was developed to treat the various [[neuroses ]] that were largely unconscious. Freud postulated that the ego aids this [[process ]] of repressing the anxiety through use of what he called [[defense mechanisms]].

The ego deals with the demands of reality, the urges of the id, and the perfectionist tendencies of the superego as best as it can. But when the anxiety becomes overwhelming, the ego must [[defend ]] itself. It does so by [[unconsciously ]] blocking the impulses or distorting them into a more acceptable, less threatening form. The techniques for doing this are called the ego defense mechanisms. Freud, his daughter Anna, and other disciples have discovered a number of defense mechanisms that accomplish this [[purpose]].

[[Repression ]] is one of the most important Freudian [[processes]], and it is the basis for other ego defenses and neurotic disorders. It is a means of defense through which threatening or painful thoughts or feelings are excluded from awareness. Freud explained repression as an involuntary removal of something from consciousness. [[Anna Freud ]] called it "motivated [[forgetting]]."

Victims of war or other trauma sometimes face experiences that are too overwhelming for them to assimilate into their conscious mind. In [[order ]] to cope, they must protect themselves from letting the painful experience incapacitate them. The result is that they unconsciously [[repress ]] the emotion. This emotion may resurface unexpectedly if a similar life event such as an accident or other [[victimization ]] triggers the repressed memories.

[[Denial ]] involves blocking [[external ]] events from awareness. For example, if a particular [[situation ]] is too much for a person to handle, he or she simply refuses to allow the experience to become reality for them, despite the fact that it happened. The use of denial is a [[primitive ]] and dangerous defense because eventually the individual must face reality. The longer one attempts to deny the objective reality, the greater may be the consequences. Denial can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with other, more subtle defense mechanisms that support it.

[[Displacement ]] is the redirection of anxiety onto a substitute or "safer" target. The redirected energy, often anger, cannot be [[discharged ]] in the most [[logical ]] way, so it must find another way to be released.

The classic example is the frustrated worker who feels victimized by his boss but cannot express his anger directly at his supervisor. Instead, he finds a safer target and yells at his [[family ]] when he arrives home. According to Freud, the man does not intentionally displace his anger and frustration on his family, but unconsciously does so because he finds the relationships of his family "safer." Venting his frustration at home will minimize consequences arising from his actions, were he to express his anger on the job.

[[Projection ]] takes one's own anxiety-arousing impulses and attributes them to someone else.

A husband finds himself attracted to a charming and flirtatious woman at work. Instead of acknowledging his attraction, he becomes increasingly jealous of his wife and worried [[about ]] her faithfulness to the [[marriage]]. Freud would say that the jealous husband is simply projecting his own feelings onto his wife in an effort to reduce the anxiety he feels about his own unacceptable feelings.

Reaction [[formation ]] helps protect against threatening impulses by overemphasizing the opposite of one's actual thoughts and actions.

A pastor who is involved in a [[secret ]] extramarital affair unconsciously attempts to push away threatening impulses related to his behavior by preaching vehemently against sexual impurity. The pastor, according to psychoanalytic theory, is attempting to reduce his own feelings of guilt and almost atone for his secretive behavior by taking the opposite or morally "right" stance.

[[Regression ]] involves going back to an earlier [[phase ]] of [[development ]] when there were fewer demands. In the face of severe stress, individuals may attempt to cope with anxiety by clinging to immature behaviors.

Children who are frightened in [[school ]] may indulge in infantile behavior such as weeping, excessive dependency, thumb-sucking, and clinging to the teacher. Again, this is perceived by psychoanalytic theory as an unconscious [[wish ]] on the part of the child to obtain nurturing, attention, or some type of consolation to cope with stressors they feel unable to handle. So, regression to an earlier, more [[helpless ]] state can either provide them with the safety they feel they [[need ]] or exempt them from responsibilities they perceive are beyond their capabilities.

[[Rationalization ]] helps a person justify specific behaviors or decisions that may not be acceptable to the conscious mind.

A woman interviews for a job that she really wants, but after the interview is over and she is not offered the [[position]], she claims that she really did not [[want ]] the job anyway. Rather than admitting to herself that she may not have conducted the interview in an appropriate manner or did not have the necessary skills or experience the employer was seeking, she portrays the situation as one where she is the decision-maker. This [[distortion ]] of the situation helps her minimize potential feelings of failure, inadequacy, or inferiority.

[[Sublimation]], according to a psychoanalytic perspective, involves diverting sexual or [[aggressive ]] energy into other channels that are often socially acceptable and even admirable.

A [[male ]] with aggressive impulses becomes an all-state linebacker on the school football team. Were these same aggressive impulses acted out in common [[social ]] situations, it would be considered inappropriate and possibly abusive to those on the receiving end. But given that "hitting" is inherent in a contact sport, the student can legitimately channel his aggressive tendencies toward a socially acceptable "performance." Not only does this give the student a release for the unconscious aggression, but it may also provide social approval for reinforcing the aggressive behavior in that context.

Freud's theory of [[psychosexual ]] development had its origins in, and was a generalization of, Josef Breuer's earlier discovery that [[traumatic ]] childhood events could have devastating negative effects upon the adult. This view assumed that early childhood sexual experiences were the crucial factors in the determination of the adult personality. Freud's believed that from the [[moment ]] of birth, the [[infant ]] is driven in his actions by the desire for bodily/sexual pleasure. Initially, infants gain such release, and derive such pleasure, through the act of sucking. Freud termed this period the [[oral ]] [[stage ]] of development. This is followed by a stage in which the locus of pleasure or energy release is the anus, particularly in the act of defecation, and this he termed the [[anal ]] stage. Then the young child develops an interest in its sexual organs as a site of pleasure and an accompanying sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite sex, while developing a subtle [[hatred ]] for the parent of the same sex. This, Freud called the [[phallic ]] stage of development. Following this the child then enters what Freud called the [[latency ]] period, in which sexual motivations become much less pronounced. This lasts until [[puberty]], when the mature [[genital ]] stage of development begins, and the pleasure drive refocuses around the genital area.

This [[developmental ]] sequence best described the progression of normal human development, according to Freud. A child at a given stage of development has certain needs and demands, such as the need of the infant to nurse. Frustration occurs when these needs are not met. Freud called these frustrations conflicts, and the child encounters them as part of the developmental process. Successful [[resolution ]] of the conflict is crucial to adjustment and eventual adult [[mental ]] health. According to Freud, when a child experiences a significant degree of frustration or overindulgence around these conflicts, the child's sexual urges become stuck to some extent in that stage of development. He called this inability to resolve the conflict a [[fixation]]. The child then continues to [[repeat ]] the maladaptive behaviors that are indicative of that unresolved conflict. In contrast, if the child progresses normally through the [[stages]], resolving each conflict and moving on, then the sexual urges do not become fixated and will [[progress ]] normally.

In Freud's view, many mental illnesses, particularly [[hysteria]], can be traced back to unresolved conflicts experienced at one of these developmental stages or to events which otherwise disrupt the normal pattern of infant development. For example, [[homosexuality ]] is seen by some Freudians as resulting from a failure to resolve the conflicts inherent in the [[phallic stage]], particularly a failure to [[identify ]] with the parent of the same sex. The obsessive concern with washing one's hands and personal hygiene, which characterizes the behavior of some neurotics, is seen as resulting from unresolved conflicts/repressions occurring at the [[anal stage]].

The [[oral stage ]] of [[psychosexual development ]] begins at birth when the oral cavity is the primary focus of psychosexual energy (libido). The child, of course, preoccupies himself with nursing and receives the pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the mouth. The child who is frustrated at this stage and unable to get his needs met adequately, because his [[mother ]] refuses to nurse him on [[demand ]] or who ends nursing sessions early, is characterized by [[pessimism]], [[envy]], suspicion, and sarcasm. The overindulged infant, whose nursing urges were often excessively [[satisfied]], is optimistic, gullible, and is [[full ]] of admiration for others around him. This stage culminates in the primary conflict of [[weaning]], which both deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held. This stage lasts approximately one and one-half years.

At approximately 18 months of age, the child enters the anal stage of psychosexual development. With the advent of toilet [[training ]] comes the child's [[obsession ]] with the anus and with the retention or [[expulsion ]] of the [[feces]]. This represents a classic conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego and superego, which [[represent ]] the [[practical ]] and societal pressures to control the bodily functions. The child meets the conflict between [[physical ]] desires and the parent's demands in one of two ways: Either he puts up a fight or he simply refuses to go. The child who wants to fight takes pleasure in excreting maliciously, perhaps just before or just after being placed on the toilet. If the [[parents ]] are too lenient and the child manages to derive pleasure and success from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of what Freud called the "anal expulsive [[character]]." This characterizes [[adults ]] who are generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant. In contrast, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents while enjoying the pleasurable pressure of the built-up feces in his intestine. If this tactic succeeds and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an "[[anal retentive ]] character." This type of person is stereotypically viewed as neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and [[passive]]-aggressive. The resolution of the anal stage, which includes proper toilet training, permanently affects the individual's inclinations to possess and their attitudes toward [[authority]]. This stage lasts from ages one and one-half to two years.

According to psychoanalytic theory, if a child becomes fixated at the anal stage, it carries over into the rest of the person's life. For instance, an adult who has anal expulsive traits may like crude or inappropriate bathroom [[humor ]] or exhibit passive-aggressive behavior toward others. Those characterized by the anal retentive [[trait ]] may be overly concerned with order, cleanliness, or organization. This behavior is sometimes diagnosed as obsessive-compulsive disorder and may pose significant problems for the person as he or she attempts to carry on normal activities of living.

The phallic stage is the setting for the most crucial sexual conflict in Freud's psychosexual [[model ]] of development. In this stage, the child's genital region becomes the focus. As the child becomes more interested in his or her genitals and in the genitals of others, conflict arises. This conflict, which Freud labeled the "[[Oedipus ]] [[complex]]" for boys and the "[[Electra complex]]" for girls, involves the child's unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one.

In the young male, the Oedipus conflict stems from his [[natural ]] love for his mother, a love which becomes sexual as his [[libidinal ]] energy transfers from the anal region to his genitals. Unfortunately for the boy, his father stands in the way of possessing his mother. The boy therefore feels aggression and envy towards this rival, his father, and also feels fear that the father will strike back at him. The boy, by this time, has undoubtedly noticed that [[women]], his mother in particular, do not have penises. Although he understands that this is a male-only fixture, he fears that his father will do something to take away his [[penis]]. Freud called this fear "[[castration ]] anxiety," which helps the boy to repress his desire for his mother. Moreover, while the boy recognizes now that he cannot possess his mother, because his father does, he can possess her vicariously by [[identifying ]] with his father and becoming as much like him as possible. This [[identification ]] indoctrinates the boy into his appropriate sexual role in life.

While the [[Oedipal ]] conflict was developed in great detail, Freud did not provide as much clarity on the Electra complex. The Electra complex has its roots in a young [[girl]]'s discovery that she, along with her mother and all other women, [[lack ]] the penis that her father and other men possess. Her love for her father then becomes both erotic and envious, as she yearns for a penis of her own. She comes to blame her mother for her perceived castration, and is struck by "[[penis envy]]," the [[apparent ]] [[counterpart ]] to the boy's [[castration anxiety]]. The resolution of the Electra complex is far less clear-cut than the resolution of the [[Oedipus complex ]] is in males. Freud stated that the resolution comes much later and is never truly [[complete]]. Just as the boy learned his sexual role by identifying with his father, so the girl learns her role by identifying with her mother in an attempt to possess her father vicariously. At the eventual resolution of the conflict, the girl passes into the [[latency period]], though Freud implies that she always remains slightly fixated at the phallic stage.

Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic character who is reckless, resolute, self-assured, and [[narcissistic]]. The failure to resolve the conflict can also cause a person to be afraid of or incapable of close love. Freud also postulated that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality.

Freud believed that adults may unconsciously replay unresolved conflicts from their childhoods if fixated at that stage. Perhaps the best example is young adults who seek the company of the opposite sex, and may eventually marry someone like their own mother or father. Freud would say that this not only represents familiarity, but an unconscious effort to resolve the fixated conflict from the phallic stage of psychosexual development. The young person may try to "win" the affection of the desired one in an effort to finally achieve the [[maternal ]] or paternal closeness for which they have longed.

The resolution of the phallic stage leads to the latency period, which is not a psychosexual stage of development, but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant. Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and impulses. During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidinal energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships. But soon puberty strikes, and the genitals once again become a central focus of libidinal energy. The latency stage extends approximately from ages six to 12. Critics [[claim ]] that Freud's assumption of a latency period of sexual development, especially at this stage of growth, represents a significant weakness in his theory.

Boys and girls in the latency stage, for the most part, have same-sex playmates and show little interest in being in the company of peers of the opposite sex. During this period, boys and girls typically begin evidencing their sex roles through play. Boys gravitate to those activities characterized as [[masculine]], participating in more aggressive play. Girls tend to favor more [[feminine ]] activities such as playing with dolls or dressing up.

In the [[genital stage]], as the child's energy once again focuses on his or her genitals, interest turns to heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has fixated in unresolved psychosexual development, the greater the capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex. Freud thought that if a person did not get trapped in any of sequential [[psychosexual stages]], then adolescence would mark the beginning of an adult life and normal [[sexual relations]], marriage, and child-rearing. If, however, the person remained fixated, particularly in the phallic stage, development would be troubled as he or she struggled to resolve the points of contention. Unfortunately, the person will often resort to repression and other defense mechanisms because he or she does not [[know ]] how to truly resolve the unconscious issues. Freud, unlike Erik Erikson who expanded his stages to cover the full span of life, believed that the crucial conflict of the genital stage occurred between the ages of 12 and 18, but left the impression that the genital stage continues indefinitely.