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The evolution of representational capacities and [[symbolic ]] expression has contributed essentially to [[human ]] [[thought]], [[language]], and [[culture]]. There are different symbolic [[processes]], and the symbolism particularly described and [[interpreted ]] in [[psychoanalysis ]] differs, in many respects, from what is designated by the same term in [[other ]] disciplines. While psychoanalysis is interested in language and other forms of symbolism, [[psychoanalytic ]] or [[unconscious ]] [[symbols ]] were early recognized as [[universal ]] and ubiquitous expressions of the [[dynamic ]] unconscious [[mind]]. In ordinary [[linguistic ]] usage, a flag may [[represent ]] a country, and a cross may represent a [[Christian ]] [[religious ]] reference. In the [[case ]] of the flag and the cross and other emblems or pictorial metaphors, the [[relationship ]] between the [[signifier ]] and its [[referent ]] is both within [[conscious ]] [[awareness ]] and in accord with [[social ]] and [[cultural ]] convention. In contrast to psychoanalytic symbols, these symbols are consciously [[understood ]] by the individuals within a [[society ]] in which they are used. They are not disguised, and they serve conscious [[communication]].

In contrast, psychoanalytic symbols are usually disguised by and from the [[individual ]] who uses [[them ]] and may not serve any conscious or intended [[internal ]] or [[external ]] communication. The [[meanings ]] of psychoanalysis symbols are relatively independent of social, cultural, and historical settings and are neither taught nor learned. Psychoanalytic symbolism is not a product of education and evolves spontaneously in human [[development]]. Given the fact that these symbols are universal in individuals as well as cross-cultural, the capacity for such symbols is innate, though their development depends upon human development and [[experience]].

Psychoanalytic symbols emerge as a result of the interaction of the [[instinctual ]] [[drives]], defenses, and other ego functions with the [[developmental ]] experience of the [[infant ]] and [[child]]. Although psychoanalytic symbols may take on additional meanings in later phases of development and may become linked to [[metaphor]], they are essentially products of archaic, [[infantile ]] processes. These symbols emerge in conjunction with the development of the [[body ]] ego and [[object ]] relations, so that there are symbols of both body parts and of the [[parents ]] and siblings. Spontaneous in origin and typically sensorial, the symbols create a [[concrete ]] bridge between the body and the primary object [[world]]. In a "symbolic equation" (Segal, 1978), the person cannot distinguish between the [[symbol ]] and the [[thing ]] [[symbolized]]. [[The symbolic ]] equation denies separateness between [[self ]] and object, whereas symbolic [[representation ]] bridges prior [[loss]].

Psychoanalytic symbols are typically linked to external, perceptual [[reality]], [[manifest ]] in the closesness of the symbol perceptually toward what is [[signified]]. Thus, sticks, swords, and wands resemble the [[phallus]]; tunnels, caves, houses, boxes have a perceptual similarity to the [[female ]] genitalia. The body [[image ]] and body surface are the locus of initial, symbolic representation of self and object, which are then extended or projected to other surfaces. Symbols thus arise in the potential to other surfaces. Symbols thus arise in the potential [[space ]] between the "I" and the "non-I," more closely related to the primary [[process ]] rather than to [[verbal ]] language and [[rational ]] thought.

As [[Freud ]] (1900a) noted, psychoanalytic symbolism is ubiquitous in [[myths]], legends, art, [[literature]], slang, [[jokes]], obscenities, etc. Psychoanalytic symbols [[unconsciously ]] represent, in addition to aspects of the self and [[childhood ]] [[objects]], coitus, pregnancy, [[birth]], rebirth, [[castration]], and [[death]]. Symbolism is utilized in [[symptom]]-[[formation]], for example, a paralyzed limb representing [[impotence ]] or castration. The [[name ]] [[Oedipus ]] or "swollen foot," unconsciously represents erection and mutilation-castration.

Ernest [[Jones ]] (1916) summarized that only what is [[repressed ]] is symbolized and [[needs ]] symbolic expression as a psychoanalytic or unconscious symbol. The symbol condenses unconscious [[wish ]] and [[defense]], a compromise formation permitting disguised "symbolic [[gratification]]." The most frequent symbols are probably those of the [[male ]] and female genitals, and these symbols more commonly appear in [[regressive ]] states such as daydreams and [[dreams]]. Psychoanalytic symbols, however, may be found in [[association ]] with all developmental phases. There are symbols referring to the [[breast ]] as well as to the mouth, tongue, and teeth; similarly, [[feces ]] may represent [[money]], gifts, and denigrated aspects of the self or object. Psychoanalytic symbols are often overdetermined as in the bisexual and biparental symbolism of animals, exemplified in the many meanings of rats for the "[[Rat Man]]" (Freud, 1909d). The rat was interpreted to mean [[penis]], feces, money (rates), [[baby]], as well as despised greed, rate, etc.

Psychoanalytic symbols may have multiple stratified meanings and, in contemporary [[analysis]], there is appreciation of [[overdetermination ]] and possible [[change ]] of function. For example, the "pit and the pendulum" may [[symbolically ]] represent the vagina and the penis but also castration and the [[threat ]] of castration. In [[oral ]] [[terms]], the pit may represent the mouth, and the pendulum the tongue.

That symbols may acquire cultural and religious [[significance ]] and take on other [[metaphorical ]] meanings does not alter the original and primary [[meaning ]] of the symbol (Blum, 1978). A cave may represent a grave without losing its earlier meaning of a womb or female [[genital]], with the earth having acquired the meaning of [[mother]].

Clinically, symbols are not pursued as an end in itself and are not the primary locus of psychoanalytic [[interpretation]]. There are no rigid [[formulas ]] for symbolic decoding or interpretation, and [[patients ]] may not directly associate to symbolic expressions. Symbols are interpreted in the context of the psychoanalytic process.

Comparable to an ancient language, symbolism may be adaptively appropriated in linguistic communication [[inside ]] and [[outside ]] psychoanalysis (Blum, 1995).

See also: [[Cinema ]] criticism; "Dreams and myths"; Disque vert, Le; Functional phenomenon; Group [[Psychology ]] and the Analysis of the Ego; [[Obsessional ]] [[neurosis]]; Psychoanalysis of [[Children]], The; Psychoanalyse des nevroses et des [[psychoses]]; Symbol.[[Bibliography]]